Misinformation & Disinformation

Source: Adobe Express Stock Images; A man on his phone is depicted with a large black cloud in the place of his head, with the words “misinformation” written across the cloud.

Overview of the module

In this module, students will learn more about what misinformation is and what disinformation is, and how these concepts can impact the students’ experiences on social media platforms. This module will prepare students to be able to recognize fake news and hate speech and learn how social media algorithms can cause users to be in an echo-chamber, which can in turn lead to social division and radicalization. Students will also learn about resources they can use to determine what is fake and what is real and become responsible netizens. 

What exactly will teachers find in this module?

Teachers will find many useful resources, including websites, videos, books and lesson plans that they can reference to help guide them through discussions of this topic. These lesson plans and resources provide a framework for teachers to explore these complex topics with younger audiences, and they can be introduced as stand-alone lessons, or be paired together with the entire module. Many lessons even have subsections that teachers can choose to turn into mini lessons. These lesson plans include reflections, discussions, hands-on activities, and other skills to help prepare the younger audiences to recognize reality. These mini lesson sections can be expanded to cover entire lessons, but they are more coherent grouped together than as separate lessons, so if these sections are updated to cover an entire lesson, it is recommended to explore all the sections in a series of lessons if possible. It is also recommended for teachers to explore the social media module and the cyberbullying module prior to exploring this module. The other two modules contain some basic knowledge about social media platforms and online safety that is recommended before pursuing these harder concepts of misinformation, disinformation, fake news and hate speech.

Why is this module important?

This module is important because it empowers students with the knowledge to determine what is real and what is fake on social media platforms. As the internet and social media platforms have become the digital public sphere, where people engage in political debates, it is important for students to be able to discern what is true and what is not to make informed decisions in their own lives. Additionally, social media algorithms especially are designed to keep users engaged, and sometimes this goal of engagement can come with a heavy cost for the users. Controversial topics tend to be pushed to the forefront for increased engagement, and sometimes, even non-controversial topics can be presented in controversial ways. This is why it is important for students to be aware of this phenomenon and be equipped with the necessary skills to combat it.

How does this module connect to bullying?

Misinformation and disinformation are tools that cyberbullies use to engage in problematic conduct on social media platforms. Students should be able to recognize, identify, and be equipped with the knowledge to combat misinformation and disinformation online.

Content

Additional Resources for Teachers

Note: many of these resources are separate from the ones listed under the materials for each lesson

Lesson Topics

Why So Hateful?

Lesson Goals: Students will be able to define hate speech and how this concept ties into bullying online. This lesson will be an interactive, hands-on approach to teach students how to differentiate between what is fake and what is not.

Source: Adobe Express Stock Images; An image of a person on a laptop, with hateful symbols and words in red text bubbles.

Materials/Resources for the Lesson:

Lesson Structure:

  • Open: 4 C’s Icebreaker
  • Body
    • Define Hate Speech
      • https://www.un.org/en/hate-speech/understanding-hate-speech/what-is-hate-speech
      • Define hate speech and explain why it can be so prevalent on social media platforms
      • Hate speech is when someone uses harmful language that targets a marginalized group of people. This can be words that comment on someone’s race, religion, ethnicity, nationality, disability, gender, or other aspects of someone’s identity.
        • According to the United Nations (https://www.un.org/en/hate-speech/understanding-hate-speech/what-is-hate-speech), hate speech can be expressed through “images, cartoons, memes, objects, gestures, and symbols” as well.
        • One of the reasons why hate speech is so widespread on social media platforms is because of anonymity. The person spreading hateful rhetoric can remain anonymous, and so they can say whatever they want about someone without facing any real consequences. This is why it is important for us to not only understand what hate speech is, but also recognize the importance of being responsible when we express ourselves online. We do not want to unintentionally (or intentionally) harm others through our words and actions.
    • Hate Speech Activity
      • Sometimes, a pen can cause more harm than a sword. To illustrate how much words matter, students will participate in this small interactive activity followed by a discussion.
      • Distribute two post-its for each student (two different colors) and prepare two large posters or post-its at the front of the classroom.
      • Designate each color to correspond with either positive messaging, or negative messaging. Ask students to use the post-its they got to write one positive statement they like to hear about themselves (on the positive color) and one negative statement they have heard people say about them that makes them feel bad (on the negative color). Ask students to avoid extremely offensive and derogatory words. Once students are done writing the words/phrases, have them stick their small post-its onto the two larger poster/post-it at the front of the room.
      • Ask the students to come up and examine each of the two posters at the front and lead a class discussion to reflect on it.
        • “How did it feel to look at the two different posters?”
        • “What makes us react to some of these words/phrases in the ways we do? Why do you think that is?”
        • “What do you think this has to do with hate speech?”
        • “Having felt the way you feel after reading some of the negative comments on this poster, what sort of responsibility do you have as an online user?”
  • Close
    • Explore the options students have if they encounter hate speech online.
      • This is what the United Nations suggests for dealing with hate speech (https://www.un.org/en/hate-speech/take-action/engage).
      • To summarize, they ask you to stop yourself from making hateful comments back at the initial post, double-check the information that has been posted, stand up for yourself and speak out against hate speech, report hateful speech, educate others on why hate speech can be problematic.
    • Resources to report hate speech on social media platforms (https://www.adl.org/online-hate-and-harassment-safety-guide)
      • This website explores what types of speech can be flagged as hate speech, and also provides detailed reporting information for popular sites among young people such as TikTok, Instagram, Facebook, YouTube, Pinterest, and more.  
      • Teachers can pull up the website and view this information together, or share the website with students, and ask them to look through the webpage individually on their iPads/devices for 5-10 minutes.
      • If students are exploring sites individually, you can call on a few students to provide short summaries for certain platforms.
Misinformation, Fake News, & Disinformation

Lesson Goals: Students will be able to define and recognize what fake news is and know the difference between misinformation and disinformation. Students will also learn about how the algorithm incentivizes sharing mis/disinformation. This lesson includes interactive, hands-on activities that can explain this complex topic in a gamified, fun-filled way.

Source: Adobe Express Stock Images; A graphic with blue, red and white numbers and letters across the background, and F-A-K-E-N-E-W-S in the foreground.

Materials/Resources for the Lesson:

Lesson Structure

  • Open: Ice Breaker
    • Two Truths and a Lie (can be played verbally, written, or digitally)
      • Verbally: Instruct students to come up with two truths and a lie about themselves, and then provide each student the opportunity to share. If you have a large class, you can randomly choose some students to call on.
      • Written: Have pre-prepared statements on notecards that can be presented to students, where they can identify which of the statements is false as a class.
      • Digitally: Pull up social media posts that share false and true statements for a fun, digital version of this game. This can be a great way to segway into defining and identifying fake news online.
  • Body: Two Sections
    • Section 1: Fake News
      • Activity: Telephone Game
        • Split students into large groups (8-10 students in each) and have them sit in a line or circle next to each other. Provide a statement for each group, and then whisper the statement to the first student in each line/circle. Have the students whisper it to the person next to them, until the statement has reached the last member of each group. Once the final member has heard the statement, have the person write down what they heard. Compare this statement with the original statement you shared.
        • This is a good way to showcase how fake news can spread easily without even intending to. Discuss how this can tie into bullying (spreading rumors, or statements being exaggerated about people) and how online/social media platforms can exacerbate this. 
      • Define: Fake News
        • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RDOFt1tFYx8 (What is Fake News?)
        • Discussion:
          • “Who can summarize what fake news is?”
          • “Why is this a problem?”
          • “What did we learn from our previous activity, and how does it apply to fake news?”
    • Section 2: Misinformation vs. Disinformation
      • Define: Misinformation and Disinformation
        • Video and discussion
        • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4qv5iTkxTDw (Video)
        • After watching it, ask some reflection questions
          • “Can someone summarize what we learned from watching the video?”
          • “Can you give an example of misinformation?” “How about disinformation?”
          • “What are the goals of misinformation and disinformation?”
          • “What are some things you can do when you come across mis/disinformation?”
          • “What do you think – are people doing this intentionally or unintentionally?”
      • Activity: Play the Disinformation game as a class or divide students into small groups and have each group play the game. Designate roles for students within each group (one person to take notes on their choices, one person to press the options on the device, one person to read the options, etc.)
      • Once the groups are finished playing the game, ask them some reflection questions. You can also ask them to pause after each section of the game, and ask them some reflection questions as well:
        • “Did you try making the right choices at first?”
        • Impersonation
          • “How did you feel when impersonating someone else or ‘posting’ fake things?”
          • “Did you expect this process to be this easy?”
        • Emotion
          • “How does emotion play a role in disinformation?”
          • “Why do you think people are more likely to respond to emotional content?”
        • Polarization
          • “Why is it easy to polarize people on social media platforms?”
          • “How does polarization in the digital world impact the real world?”
          • “How do bots make this problem worse?”
        • Conspiracy
          • “What are some conspiracies that you have seen on social media?”
          • “What are the dangers of spreading conspiracy theories?”
        • Discredit
          • “Why is it so easy to discredit others online?”
          • “What sort of wider implications can this have? Think what would happen if someone tries to discredit verifiable news sources or other such sources that share life-saving information such as the WHO.”
        • Trolling
          • “What consequences can trolling have on real life scenarios?”
          • “How can you identify when you are being trolled online?”
          • “How does the algorithm incentivize you to spread fake news, misinformation and disinformation?”
  • Close: Summarize and Reflect
    • Ask students to summarize what they learned during the lesson. Ask each student to offer one thing. This can be a quick “popcorn” discussion, where students raise their hands, and the teacher selects the first student, who offers an answer, and then that student selects the next person with their hand raised, who shares something, and then chooses another student, so on and so forth.
    • Once the summary is done, ask a thought-provoking question to the students. Some examples include:
      • “How does the spreading of fake news, mis/disinformation exacerbate bullying online?”
      • “Do you notice similarities in bullying and spreading mis/disinformation?” (Both attack peoples’ emotions; both manipulate peoples’ worldview, etc.)
Give Me All Your Attention!

Lesson Goals: This lesson is designed to introduce students to the concepts of echo-chambers and the attention economy. Students will understand how the social media algorithms work, and how in turn it can cause social division, and in more serious cases, lead to radicalization. Students will finally develop critical thinking skills through interactive activities that challenge their views and perspectives. This lesson has subsections that cover complex topics in an easy-to-digest manner. Hence, the style of this lesson is a bit different from others. There will be mini lectures for each section followed by an activity that emphasizes the main objective of the mini lesson.

Source: Adobe Express Stock Images; This image is an attempt to depict how social media usage can place users in echo chambers, increasing the risk of tribalism and hive mindsets.

Materials/Resources for the Lesson:

Lesson Structure:

  • Open
    • Ask students some thought-provoking questions that set up the lesson. Examples include:
      • “Who has been on a social media platform in the past 24 hours? What platforms were they and what was the first thing that you saw when you got onto the platform”
      • “Have you ever compared what you see on your social media pages to what your friend sees? What are some things you noticed? Have you ever wondered why you and your friend may have very different social media pages? What do you think causes this difference?”
  • Body: Five Sections
    • Section 1: Let’s Talk Algorithm
      • Introductory lecture (can also use a video and discussion at this stage)
        • So, what is an algorithm and what does it have to do with how your social media pages work? (https://www.nnlm.gov/guides/data-glossary/algorithm)
        • Algorithms are instructions that computers and other machines use to complete the jobs they were created to do. They are typically used for data processing, calculating, and automation purposes. Although they are used in complex fields like AI, Data Science, Computer Science, Mathematics, and other such fields, they are also very important in our daily lives as a way to solve problems efficiently and effectively. For example, think about when you google something, and as you type, the search bar autofills suggestions. This is due to algorithms guessing what you might want to search for based on popular searches on the topic, or from your previous search patterns. Or think of when you are streaming shows on Netflix, and recommendations for shows and movies pop up; this is based on your watch history and what you are interested in.
        • Alternatively, teachers can show this video (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F5tz887wXCY) and have a small discussion after.
      • Activity: Mimic Algorithm in class
        • Pick 5-6 students to “create content” by giving each “content creator” a content card. Each content card should have a specific genre listed such as “cat videos”, “sports clips”, “art videos”, “car videos”, etc.)
        • The rest of the class will be voting on each content genre. As each “content creator” presents their content to the class, each of the students (who are not content creators) vote on the content they like. The teacher will act as the algorithm and keep track of how much interest each genre has.
        • As each round goes on, the most liked content will appear more often, while the least liked content will be asked to step aside.
        • At the end, the class will be able to visibly see how the algorithm (the teacher) curated the posts the users (the students) view by only showing them the content they preferred to see, and avoiding content they don’t want to see.
        • Wrap up and discuss:
          • “Why would having something like this be beneficial?”
            • You would be able to curate your ads and internet posts to your needs. For example, it could help with shopping for your needs by the recommended items you receive ads for without having to search for hours on online stores and platforms.
          • “Why could this also be dangerous?”
            • You only see things you agree with, and so, you fall under a false assumption that everyone else also sees the same things you do and therefore agrees with all your beliefs. When you come across something that challenges how you perceive the world, it might trigger you into reacting, at times, negatively.
    • Section 2: Echo Chambers
      • Lecture: “The previous activity is a great segway into the echo chamber section of this lesson. Always seeing something you agree with while never having your views challenged can cause what is known as an echo-chamber. This is dangerous for many reasons. For one, being in an echo chamber can reinforce your opinions, even if they are wrong.
        • Think about this example: if you are someone who was shown flat-earth videos and you liked it, now all of a sudden, you continue to get more and more flat-earth videos recommended to you on your feed. If you continue watching these videos, it can seem like there are so many other people who think this to be true, so maybe the earth is flat? But the problem here is that you are only being shown one point of view. You are not being exposed to some of the arguments made against the flat-earth posts, and so you don’t see these videos being challenged.
        • Examples like this can cause people to believe in falsehoods and double-down on them when challenged on it. In the end, you end up seeking out information that supports your view instead of seeking out the truth, and this can make you distrustful of others who are not part of your group. Echo chambers can have far reaching consequences. They can influence people’s opinions, the way they act, and the decisions they make in their daily lives.”
      • Activity: “So, let’s see for ourselves how this works.”
        • Pick some topics that the students will have different opinions on, but that are subjective. Examples:
          • Best season (Winter, Fall, Summer, Spring)
          • Best subject (English, Math, Science, Social Studies, Art, History, etc.)
          • Best Pet (Dog, Cat, Hamster, Rabbit, etc.)
          • Favorite outdoor activity (Hiking, Biking, Swimming, etc.)
        • Ask the question and have the students group together based on their answers. Give each group two to three minutes to discuss why their group’s choice is the best. Once this is done, ask the whole class if anyone wants to change groups.
        • Have a discussion on the impact of being exposed to only one viewpoint. Draw from what you discussed during your lecture. Have students share some of the reasons why they chose their group over the other group to the whole class. Ask again if anyone in the class, having heard from different groups, may have changed their groups if they had been aware of this previously. Talk about how, although this activity focused on opinionated questions, at times, on social media platforms, there are such echo chambers on non-opinionated, factual topics.
    • Section 3: The Attention Economy
      • Lecture: “So, why do social media platforms want to create echo-chambers and push certain algorithms? Social media platforms try to keep their users engaged as long as possible, because they make money by showing users more ads. We call this attention economy, as the time and attention you spend on social media platforms has a monetary value for the social media companies keeping your attention on their sites. Think about what sort of content keeps you glued onto your social media pages as you continue to scroll through the posts. So, what are some content examples that have kept you engaged on social media platforms?” (emotional content, controversial content, etc.)
      • Activity: Clickbait
        • Prepare some headlines to show students; include some normal headlines from news articles and such, and include clickbait articles.
        • Students will decide which headlines they would click on, and the teacher keeps score.
        • Once you have cycled through all the headlines you prepared, reveal which of the headlines were clickbait and which of the headlines were normal headlines.
        • Discuss how clickbait material, which can be super engaging and attention-grabbing, may not always be informative or factual material.
        • Tie this into the previous discussion of social media platforms and their attention economy.
    • Section 4: Social Division
      • Lecture: “Echo-chambers, algorithms, and attention-seeking content can sometimes lead to social division and extreme views. Let’s think of some examples of this you may see in your everyday lives. How many of you like to play games online? (students raise their hands). Now, maybe when you all are playing games, some of you prefer certain games like Roblox over other games like Mario Kart 8. Still others may have different opinions about which gaming platforms are better (XBOX, PlayStation, or PC). It’s good to have your own opinions and preferences, but if you are in an echo-chamber that is constantly re-enforcing your belief that (let’s say) XBOX is the best gaming platform, and you get shown all the XBOX content or negative content about PlayStation games, you may get into conflicts online with other users who prefer different gaming platforms. The stronger your opinions, the more extreme your reactions can get. In the end, this can get out of hand and turn into a cyberbullying situation very fast. All because you prefer a different gaming platform than someone else.”
        • Ask students to give other examples of how things can escalate and become extreme.
      • Activity: Role-playing the examples
        • Pair students up and have them brainstorm an example to act out. (You should put them in groups of even numbered members, as you want to have the same number of students arguing each point).
        • Each student will take turns arguing their position back and forth. Stop the group before things get too bad, but this is a way to showcase how a silly argument can become extreme.
        • Once all the groups have had a chance to present, discuss what the students learned from this exercise. How can this be worse when dealing with anonymous users online?
    • Section 5: Broaden Your Horizon
      • Activity/Discussion: What are some ways to broaden our horizons?
        • Ask students to provide strategies on how they can be more inclusive of other perspectives. Some that you can provide are:
          • Fact-check information you come across online before you share them
          • Don’t interact with posts that are controversial; don’t give them the attention they want
          • Avoid click-baits
          • Follow diverse sources so you can check across different platforms to gather different opinions on the same topic before you make your own decisions
          • Read a lot of books; books contain so much knowledge, and each book brings you a different perspective then the next.
          • Regularly challenge what you believe. Ask yourself why you believe what you believe, and make sure the things you believe are a result of your own critical thinking, not because someone told you to believe it
          • Try putting yourself in other people’s shoes. When you come across something you don’t agree with, instead of thinking of a counter argument, think about why that person feels the way they do. Exercise empathy.
          • Volunteer and participate in community events; this is a great way to meet people that are different from you, that have different experiences and perspectives from you. Make connections across different backgrounds so that if you come across something online that might sound untrue about a certain group, you are able to recognize it and fight back!
          • While on social media platforms, follow educational content. (of course, fact-check the information on there) but learn something new, such as a skill, a craft, book suggestions, life-hacks, and more.
  • Close: Summary and Reflection
    • Ask students to provide a summary of some of the concepts they learned. Ask them to define words they learned, such as algorithms, echo-chamber, and attention economy.
    • Have students reflect on their own social media usage and share one thing they will change to broaden their perspectives while using social media.
Media Literacy

Lesson Goals: In this lesson, students will learn how to double check their sources, determine whether something is fake or not, and learn how to use the CRAP test to determine whether a website or article is credible.

Source: Yahoo Images; free to use and share; the acronym CRAP helps us remember how to identify accurate information online.

Materials/Resources for the Lesson:

Lesson Structure

  • Open:
    • Start with a quick quiz on media literacy. Ask questions such as these:
      • “What do you think media literacy means?”
      • “What is the difference between fact and opinion in media?”
      • “how can you tell if a post is misleading on your social media page?”
      • “why do you think media literacy is important?”
    • Discuss the lesson goal
  • Body: CRAP Test
    • It can be very easy to spread false information online, and sometimes, it can happen without us even knowing about it. How can we avoid spreading misinformation on our own social media platforms? How can we identify posts that are false or misleading? Well, we will be learning how to do this using a method that was created by librarian Molly Beestrum, known as the CRAP Test. So what is the CRAP Test and why should we use it? The CRAP Test is a tool we can use to determine whether or not a website or post is credible. According to this test, there are four major steps we should take before we can decide whether something is factual or not.
      • Currency: The first step is to look at how current the information is. Is the article or post something that was posted recently? How recently? How often does the website you are on update its posts/articles? Think about your topic and think about whether the article/post you are reading applies to the current situation. Some topics in certain fields (like technology, medicine and science) are updating faster than other fields (such as history).
      • Reliability: The second step is to think about the content itself. Reading through the article, are there sources provided for any claims the article makes? Are these sources from credible avenues (mainstream media pages, popularly known sites such as the UN or governmental sites)? Was this article just an opinion piece or did this article get reviewed by experts before it was published? Did you find any statements in the article that was false? A peer-reviewed article in a scholarly journal is more reliable than a blog posted on reddit.com because there were multiple steps of reviews the article went through (where it was fact-checked) before it was published.
      • Authority: Now let’s look at who wrote the article and the website it is being published on. Is the author’s name and credentials (where they work, previous articles they have written, any educational background they may have, etc.) easily accessible? These days, you are able to do a quick google search to see if you can find any information on people that can be verified. Even if we know who the author is, we still have to ask ourselves, are they someone who we should listen to on a particular topic? For example, we know who Gordon Ramsay is. He’s an amazing chef, and he is an expert at recipes! Now if he wrote an article on how best to cook scrambled eggs, that would be pretty credible, but if he wrote an article on how to build a rocket, we may want to fact-check that! Also, who is publishing the article? Is the website a reputable one (for example a government website, a mainstream media page like CNN, MSNBC, Washington Post, etc. or a university page)? What is the interest of the publisher?
      • Purpose/Point of View: Finally let’s look at the perspective of the article. Is it subjective (opinions) or objective (factual)? Does the author actually provide citations for the sources or do they simply list them? Is the author trying to push a particular agenda or viewpoint, or do they present other sides of the argument? Is this article attempting to sell you something? If so, are they clearly stating it, or are they being sneaky about it?
    • Once you put your articles through the CRAP test, you will be able to determine whether or not the article is credible or not.
  • Fact-checking activity
    • Choose one of the two games (Go Viral! Game or Fakey Game) to assign students to play. The Fakey Game might be a better option here.
      • The Go Viral! Game displays how easy it is to manipulate narratives and spread misleading information. This game has prompts that students can select that walk them through the three sections of the game.
      • The Fakey Game is designed to present itself as a social media newsfeed page. Students are given the option to like or share it if they think it’s credible. They are also given the option to fact-check the post if they don’t find the post credible. They can also click on hints and skip if they are unsure. The amount of points you can earn and the percentage of your skill level depend on your ability to correctly identify whether an article/post is credible or not.
    • Following the activity, split the students into small groups and have them answer some questions about their results. There will be different questions for the two games above
      • Go Viral!: What went as expected? What surprised you? Did you think it was this easy to make misleading posts? How did you feel when doing this activity (guilty, immoral, like a winner)? What did you learn from playing this game?
      • Fakey: How did you do? How difficult was it to recognize fake articles vs. real ones? Have you seen similar posts on your own social media pages? Did anyone use the CRAP test to determine which post was credible and which one was not? What did you learn from playing this game?
    • Once the students have discussed in their groups, come together as a class, and have a spokesperson from each group speak about their group’s answers. Did all the students have similar reactions/experiences with the game? What were some differences? Did anyone use the CRAP test? What were some takeaways?
  • Close
    • Provide articles (credible and non-credible) for students to apply the CRAP test to determine whether it is credible or not. This can be done individually (to determine who grasped the lesson and who may need some more help), or in groups (to allow students the ability to talk it out with their peers and help each other).

Published by

Kala Bhattar

Kala Bhattar has her BA in Political Science with a double minor in International Studies and Human Rights at the University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB). She has worked with the Institute for Human Rights (IHR) at UAB since fall of 2021 as an intern blog writer and has also been working on some of the side projects conducted by the IHR. As a blog writer, she has written on topics of both domestic and international importance, such as issues of food insecurity and homelessness in the United States, but also has captured the broader struggles of people around the world, especially in her series on Environmental Justice. The IHR has been an important platform for Bhattar to spread awareness about contemporary issues and has introduced her and prepared her for many opportunities that have assisted her in pursuing her academic goals.

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